EFFECTS OF CHOCOLATE CONSUMPTION ON ENHANCING COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE
Rosanna Drake, Daniel Felbaum, Lauren Matthews, Alex Reed, & Bryan Raudenbush

Previous research has found that the nutrient content of foods aids in glucose release and increased blood flow.  These increases have subsequently been implicated in augmenting cognitive performance.  The present study assessed the effects of various chocolate types on cognitive performance, mood, and task workload.  In a within-subjects design, participants completed the protocol under four conditions:  85g milk chocolate (total fat 26g, saturated fat 18g, carbohydrates 50g, fiber 2g, sugar 44g, protein 6g), 85g dark chocolate (total fat 34g, saturated fat 20g, carbohydrates 46g, fiber 6g, sugar 34g, protein 4g), 85g carob (total fat 20g, saturated fat 14g, carbohydrates 45g, fiber 11g, sugar 40g, protein 11g), and a non-consumption control condition.  After a 15 minute digestive period, participants completed a variety of computer-based neuropsychological tests assessing word discrimination, verbal memory, design memory, attention span, reaction time, problem solving, and response variability.  Mood and task workload were assessed via the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and the NASA-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX).  Gender and age served as co-variates for the analyses.  Composite scores for verbal and visual memory were significantly higher for milk chocolate than the other conditions.  Consumption of milk or dark chocolate showed improved impulse control and reaction time.  These findings provide support for nutrient release via chocolate consumption to enhance cognitive performance. 

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GENDER STEREOTYPED DISTRACTIONS DIFFERENTIALLY INFLUENCE PAIN PERCEPTION AND TOLERANCE IN MALES AND FEMALES
Kara Blacker, Rosanna Drake, & Bryan Raudenbush

Visual and physical distractions can increase human pain tolerance.  In addition, differences in pain threshold and tolerance are noted between males and females.  The present study examined the effects of gender-specific visual distractions on pain threshold and tolerance, mood, workload, and physiology.  In a within-subjects design, 60 participants (30 males, 30 females) viewed one of two gender-specific videos (one male—an ultimate fighting video, one female—a dramatic love scene), or a non-video control condition.  Pain was administered via a cold pressor test, to a maximum of 5 minutes, with pain ratings made every 30 seconds.  Overall pain ratings were greater for females, and males indicated greater pain tolerance.  Males viewing male gender-specific video produced the lowest pain ratings.  Lower levels of anger were found when viewing the male video in comparison to both the female video and non-video control.  In addition, participants reported a significantly higher level of depression while watching the female video as compared to the male video.  Physiological measures were recorded pre- and post-procedure in each video condition.  Oxygen saturation was higher during the post-test.  A trend revealed an increase in pulse rate while watching either video compared to the non-video control.  Pulse and systolic blood pressure also decreased over time.  These results indicate gender-specific, differential effects on altering pain perception between males and females.  These findings suggest a gender and visual presentation interaction, specifically to modify pain distraction.  This may be of particular benefit when applied to individuals suffering from chronic pain.

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ABILITY OF GUM FLAVORS TO DISTRACT PARTICIPANTS FROM PAINFUL STIMULI:  DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF RETRONASAL VS. ORTHONASAL SCENT ADMINISTRATION
Robert Bayley, Lauren Mathews, Jude Almeida, Erin Street, & Bryan Raudenbush

Research has shown that peppermint and cinnamon odors significantly increase physiological arousal, cognitive performance, and physical performance in humans, as well as increase pain tolerance in both mice and humans.  More recently, the route of administration of these scents has been found to play a key role in producing such effects.  For example, orthonasal (through the nose) scent administration augments levels of alertness and leads to increased cognitive processing; however, effects observed during retronasal (through the mouth) administration are significantly less powerful.  The present study assess the efficacy of retronasal odorant administration on pain threshold and tolerance.  In a within-subjects design, participants completed the protocol under five conditions:  cinnamon gum, peppermint gum, flavorless gum, sham chewing, and a control condition.  Participants experienced the conditions for 10 minutes prior to and during a cold pressor test.  Following the cold pressor test, participants completed questionnaires related to mood (Profile of Mood States) and workload (NASA-Task Load Index).  Despite past research indicating pain tolerance and threshold effects from orthonasal stimuli, the retronasal stimuli in the present study failed to replicate such effects.  Thus, route of odorant administration is an important consideration in promoting pain relief.

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COMPARISON OF VISUAL VS. OLFACTORY DISTRACTIONS ON PAIN THRESHOLD AND TOLERANCE
Robert Bailey, Lindsay Coyne, Peter D’Amore, Daniel Felbaum, Katie Repicky, & Bryan Raudenbush 

A variety of distraction techniques (visual, physical, olfactory, etc.) have been effective in mediating pain perception and tolerance.  The present study compared the efficacy of visual vs. olfactory pain distraction methods.  In a within-subjects design, Ps completed four conditions:  peppermint scent, high arousal (HA) images, low arousal images (LA), and a control condition.  Images were from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS).  After an 8-minute exposure, Ps completed a cold pressor test and questionnaires assessing mood (POMS), task load (NASA-TLX), and anxiety (STAI).  Physiological measurements (O2, pulse, BP) were monitored pre- and post-cold pressor testing.  HA produced significantly lower pain intensity ratings than both the LA and the control condition.  Peppermint scent produced lower pain ratings than the control and LA conditions.  Both peppermint scent and HA promoted increased pain tolerance.  HA images led to higher ratings of anxiety.  Physiologically, visual stimuli led to lower systolic ratings, and there was an interaction indicating higher post systolic ratings between the peppermint and control condition.  Finally, mean arterial pressure increased following the cold pressor task.  Thus, peppermint scent and HA visual images are equally effective in managing pain and altering physiological measurements during a cold pressor task.

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PAIN THRESHOLD DIFFERENCES AMONG CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT PLAY ATHLETES: PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES LEADING TO GREATER PHYSICAL INJURY POTENTIAL
R. J. Canter & Rebecca Grayhem

Pain and injury are often a consequence of sports play.  In addition, the likelihood of experiencing pain and injury increases as physical contact among athletes increases.  Research has shown that previous experience with pain has a desensitizing effect on pain threshold and tolerance.  Such a desensitizing effect is also more prevalent among contact sports athletes than non-contact sports athletes.  The present study assessed pain threshold and tolerance among intercollegiate male athletes, participating in a variety of contact and non-contact sports.  In addition, athletes’ recent injuries, the amount of pain associated with the injuries, and the amount of pain it would take to stop the athlete from practicing and competing was evaluated.  In Phase I, athletes underwent a cold pressor pain test (3• C water bath), during which they rated their level of pain every 30 sec.  In addition, pain tolerance (total time the athletes allowed themselves to experience the painful stimuli) was measured.  Several psychological variables, including level of aggressiveness, competitiveness, and workload were also assessed.  Athletes participating in contact sports rated their pain as less severe and had a greater pain tolerance time than non-contact sports athletes.  Physical and temporal demand, and level of frustration, were lower for high-contact sports.  Level of aggressiveness was greater in the high-contact sports, however, an analysis of co-variance using aggressiveness as the co-variate did not alter the outcomes of the pain threshold and tolerance measures.  In Phase II, a significant difference existed between the amount of pain required to stop practicing and the amount of pain required to stop playing.  Athletes were more willing to compete while injured and in pain, thus potentially compounding and worsening their injuries.  Taken together, these results provide support for the role of physical contact on desensitizing athletes to pain, and indicate a need for additional intervention and education concerning adequate injury healing time.

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ATTENTION AND PAIN PERCEPTION DURING A COLD PRESSOR TEST: IMPACT OF HUNGER LEVEL, FASTING AND BODY COMPOSITION
Rebecca Grayhem

Previous research indicates that past experience with pain mediates future pain threshold and tolerance.  In addition, level of body fat and susceptibility to external eating cues are highly correlated (as proposed by the Externality Hypothesis of Obesity).  The present study was designed to combine such factors, and assess whether hunger pains play a mediating role in regards to pain threshold and tolerance.  Utilizing a within-subjects design, participants completed the experimental protocol both after completing a 24-hour fast and after consuming a meal until they were satiated.  The order of the conditions was randomized.  The protocol consisted of a cold pressor test, with submersion of the dominant hand and forearm into a 3 degree water bath.  Ratings of pain were made on an 11-point scale every 30 sec up to a maximum of 5 min.  In addition, several participant variables (i.e., height, weight, gender, body composition) and personality tests (i.e., Profile of Mood States, NASA Task Load Index, Food Neophobia Scale) were recorded.  Significant effects were found among the fasting and non-fasting conditions.  While fasting, participants indicated greater pain tolerance (as measured by the total amount of time the participants were able to tolerate the cold pressor test), as well as decreased pain ratings over time.  In addition, there was a significant interaction of body composition and condition, such that participants with larger body compositions were able to withstand the pain for a greater period of time under the fasting condition.  These results provide additional support for the influence of both past pain experience and body fat level on mediating pain threshold and response. 

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EFFECTS OF SHAM INTOXICATION ON COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING AND PERFORMANCE
B. Raudenbush, J. Smith, T. Cessna, K. McCombs, R. Yahn

Past research indicates that alcohol consumption influences human performance, particularly in terms of aggression, cognition, and emotion.  However, little research has been performed regarding whether sham intoxication produces similar effects.  The present study examined the effects of sham intoxication on cognitive performance.  Experimenters utilized the IMPACT© software program to ascertain whether sham intoxication affects neurocognitive functions such as memory, brain processing, speed, and reaction time.  In the control session, participants completed questionnaires assessing aggression, personality, and beverage preferences.  In the experimental condition, participants consumed forty-eight ounces of non-alcoholic beer.  During both conditions, experimenters recorded participant’s physiological measurements (heart rate, oxygen saturation, and blood pressure).   Participants also completed questionnaires related to mood and perceived workload during both conditions.  The control and experimental sessions were separated by at least 24 hours.  Results indicated that participants performed significantly worse on the visual memory task during the experimental condition and exhibited increased impulsivity.  They also indicated an increase in physical demand, anger, confusion, and fatigue and a decrease in frustration in the experimental condition.  These results further support the impact of sham intoxication, and general placebo effects, on cognitive functioning.

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EFFECTS OF SHAM INTOXICATION: IMPACT ON MOOD, PAIN PERCEPTION AND THRESHOLD, LEVEL OF AGGRESSION , AND PHYSIOLOGY
B. Raudenbush, I. Wilson, P. Zoladz

Past research concerning the effects of perceived intoxication on human behavior has been limited.   However, it has been found that perceived intoxication significantly undermines psychomotor skills.   The present study was designed to assess the effects of perceived intoxication on pain tolerance, mood, and workload.   Thirty-one participants (21 male, 10 female) completed two within factor testing sessions.   In the control session, participants completed questionnaires assessing aggression, personality, and beverage preferences.   In the experimental condition, participants consumed forty-eight ounces of non-alcoholic beer, while experimenters intermittently recorded their physiological measurements (heart rate, oxygen saturation, and blood pressure).   Subsequently, in both conditions, participants completed a questionnaire assessing mood, a cold pressor task, and a questionnaire examining perceived workload.   Two-within ANOVAs revealed that participants’ pain ratings in the experimental condition were significantly lower than those in the control condition.    Additionally, participants in the experimental condition held their hand in the three-degree Celsius water for a significantly greater amount of time.   Regarding perceived workload, the participants reported significantly less physical demand and significantly greater self-evaluated performance in the experimental condition.   When examining the physiological changes over time with one-within ANOVAs, there was a significant decrease in pulse and a significant increase in oxygen saturation, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure from pre-intoxication to post-intoxication.  Implications of the present study are particularly salient in regards to minimizing pain through professional suggestibility. 

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TYPICAL AND IDEAL RATINGS
Heather Duncan, April Hamlin, Leigh Ann Krebs, Rebecca Shoemaker

The perceptions of individuals about the typical man, typical woman, ideal man, and the ideal woman were measured in a 2x2 repeated measures within design. Forty-eight participants (24 females and 24 males) were asked to rate each condition on 60 possible character traits, through the use of the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Each participant received all four conditions, resulting in the completion of four surveys per person. The typical man was found to be strongly masculine, while the typical woman was found to be near feminine. The ideal man on the other hand was found to be strongly masculine, while the ideal woman was found to be androgynous.

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THE EFFECTS OF GENDER ON THE PERCEPTION OF SELF, IDEAL, AND SCIENTISTS
Nikki Zarnoch, Jared Bloom, Mio Yamada, Justin Schmitt

The perceptions of yourself, how you would ideally prefer to be, and a typical scientist was examined in a 2x3 mixed factorial design, with the between variable being gender and the within variable being perceptions of self, ideal, and scientists. Fifty-nine participants (30 females and 29 males) rated how well each of the 60 items described the 3 levels. It was done on a scale of 1 to 7, known as the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Using the Latin Square, the 3 levels (self, ideal, and scientist) were placed in different orders in the packets to offset order effect. The ratings for females of the real you were found to be androgynous, the ratings of the ideal self were androgynous, and the ratings of the typical scientist were strongly masculine. The ratings for the males of the real you were found to be near masculine, ratings for the ideal self were found to be strongly masculine, and the ratings of the typical scientists were strongly masculine. Significant results were found between all levels for the females and only between self and ideal for the men.

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PERCEPTIONS OF MALE AND FEMALE SCIENTISTS AND NON SCIENTISTS WITH STEREOTYPICAL MASCULINE AND FEMININE TRAITS
Kristen Koval, Autumn Hager, Laura Bruno

The perceptions of scientists and nonscientists were examined by using four factors: gender, discipline, traits, and statements. The study was analyzed using a 2x2x2x9 repeated measures ANOVA with an interval scale as the dependent measure. Twenty-nine participants were examined in a within design. Previous studies have shown that gender stereotypes may have an impact on social judgments and that cultural differences may exist when viewing sex roles between males and females. The results of this study showed main effects for traits and statements and interactions between gender and traits, discipline and traits, and statements and traits. Overall, feminine traits are rated more positively in statements regarding interpersonal skills, whereas masculine traits are rated more positively in statements regarding competency and intelligence.

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THE COMPARISON OF BSRI SCORES FOR HEALTHY ADULTS VS. THE TYPICAL MALE AND FEMALE
Chris Huntley, Kathryn Repicky, Nima Pourahmady, Deanna Phillips

Students completed surveys assessing their views of healthy adults, healthy males, and healthy females, in relation to role. The researchers administered the Bem Sex Role Inventory in a normal classroom setting, and rewarded each participant with extra points to be used in their psychology classes. Similar studies had been analyzed, showing that scientists were generally viewed as masculine. However, the results of the current study were expected to reflect no differentiation between masculinity and femininity when participants were describing healthy adults, due to general societal maturity. A significant amount of participants were still found to view, not only healthy adults, but also healthy females as more masculine.

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SEX ROLE PERCEPTIONS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Kristen Harrison, Ryan Hunker, and Julia Plumley
 
Students at a small Catholic university completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory for how they viewed themselves, they typical high school student, a high school student who is good at science, and a high school student who is not good at science. The gender role ratings of high school students were examined in a within subjects design; participants rated words that were masculine, feminine, or filler. All of the participants filled out each of the four surveys and rated the words on a scale from 1 to 7(1 being never true of and 7 being always true of). The results showed that a significant difference occurred the masculinity ratings of a high school student who is good at science and a high school student who is not good at science. Students that were described as being overall good in science were viewed significantly more masculine than those students who were not.

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THE PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS REGARDING COLLEGE PROFESSORS
DJ Watts, Daniel Felbaum, Jude Almeida, and Julie Madden

The perception of students regarding college professors was measured in a 2 (gender of professor) x 2 (traits listed) x 2 (type of course) factorial design.  One hundred sixty college students from a convenience sample completed a survey with a list of characteristics describing stereotypical masculine or feminine traits of a male or female professor in a science or non-science major.  The dependent variable, which was various adjectives and descriptive phrases, was measured on a scale from one, strongly disagree, through five, strongly agree.  In eleven questions, the impression the participant perceived of the teacher represented, was measured on the survey.  The fact that the teacher was male or female teaching a science or non-science major, with feminine or masculine traits, made no statistically significant difference to the participants involved.

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THE PERCEPTIONS OF A TYPICAL COLLEGE STUDENT, SCIENCE MAJOR, NON-SCIENCE MAJOR, AND SELF, BASED ON GENDER
Ramsey Miller, Carrie Swart, Keely Clark, and Molly Latz

Data on the perceptions of gender role were collected for typical college students, science majors, non-science majors, and self from a convenience sample of 21 female and 19 male participants. Each participant completed the 60 characteristics Bem test for all 4 of the above categories. There was a significant difference for the main effect of gender, in that men scored the categories significantly more masculine than the women. The trend seems to be that the ratings from the most masculine to most feminine were science majors, typical college students, non-science majors, and self. A t-test showed that the significant differences were between the perceptions of college students and self, as well as science majors and self.

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THE PERCEPTIONS OF PROFESSORS WITH MASCULINE OR FEMININE TRAITS
Daniel Felbaum, Ramsey Miller, Debra Hull
 
Undergraduate students read descriptions of eight hypothetical college professors. The hypothetical professors were either male or female, teaching in either a science or non-science field, and exhibiting either stereotypical masculine or feminine characteristics. The characteristics were taken from the masculine and feminine scales of the Bem Sex Role Inventory and consisted of 20 descriptors each. The eight conditions were presented to participants in random order using a double Latin Squares Design. After reading each of the eight descriptions, participants were asked to rate the hypothetical professor on 11 items related to teaching effectiveness, using a five-point scale. Results showed that regardless of the gender of the professor or the field in which the professor is working (science or non-science), overall, stereotypical masculine characteristics were rated more favorably than stereotypically feminine characteristics. An interaction between the items and characteristics showed the professors described with masculine traits, regardless of their gender or discipline, were considered to be better teachers, more competent in the discipline, more intelligent, more well respected by students, and more well respected by other professors than were professors described with feminine traits. Professors described with feminine traits, regardless of their gender or discipline, were considered to have better interpersonal skills, to be warmer, and to be better liked by students than were professors described with masculine traits. These results have important implications for student evaluations of teachers who exhibit feminine characteristics.